Native Americans in World War II

Native Americans in World War II

by Thomas D. Morgan

[Excerpted from Army History: The Professional Bulletin of Army History, No. 35 (Fall 1995), pp. 22-27]

In 1936, President Franklin D. Roosevelt said, "This generation has a rendezvous with destiny." When Roosevelt said that he had no idea of how much World War II would make his prophecy ring true. More than fifty years later, Americans are remembering the sacrifices of that generation, which took up arms in defense of the nation. Part of that generation was a neglected minority, Native American Indians, who flocked to the colors in defense of their country. No group that participated in World War II made a greater per capita contribution, and no group was changed more by the war. As part of the commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of World WarII, it is fitting forthe nation to recall the contributions of its own "first citizens."
The Vanishing American
At the time of Christopher Columbus ' arrival in the New World, the Native American population living in what is now the United States was estimated at about one million. By 1880, only 250,000 Indians remained and this gave rise to the "Vanishing American" theory. By 1940, this population had risen to about 350,000. During World War II more than 44,000 Native Americans saw military service. They served on all fronts in the conflict and were honored by receiving numerous Purple Hearts, Air Medals, Distinguished Flying Crosses, Bronze Stars, SilverStars, Distinguished Service Crosses, and three Congressional Medals of Honor. Indian participation in World War II was so extensive that it later became part of American folklore and popular culture.
The Warrior Image
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor seemed to waken an ancestral warrior spirit in many Native Americans. Thousands of young Indians went into the armed forces or to work in the war production plants that abruptly emerged during military and industrial mobilization. A 1942 survey indicated that 40 percent more Native Americans voluntarily enlisted than had been drafted. Lt. Emest Childers (Creek), Lt. Jack Montgomery (Cherokee), and Lt. Van Barfoot (ChoctawW all of the famed 45th "Thunderbird" Infantry Division-won Medals of Honor in Europe. Childers had first distinguished himself in Sicily, where he received a battlefield commission. Later in Italy, unaided and despite severe wounds, he destroyed three German machine gun emplacements. During the Anzio Campaign in Italy, Montgomery attacked a German strongpoint single-handed, killing eleven of the enemy and taking thirty-three prisoners. During the breakout from Anzio to Rome, Barfoot knocked out two machine gun nests and captured seventeen prisoners. Subsequently, he defeated three German tanks and carried two wounded men to safety. All of these exploits reinforced the "warrior" image in the American mind. Maj. Gen. Clarence Tinker, an Osage and a career pilot, was the highest ranking Indian in the armed forces at the beginning of the war. He died leading a flight of bombers in the Pacific during the Battle of Midway. Joseph J. "Jocko" Clark, the first Indian (Cherokee) to graduate from Annapolis, participated in carrier battles in the Pacific and became an admiral. Brumett Echohawk (Pawnee), a renowned expert in hand-to-hand combat, trained commandos.
A Tradition as Fighters
The Iroquois Confederacy, having declared war on Germany in 1917, had never made peace and so automatically became party to World War II. The Navajo and other tribes were so eager to go to war that they stood for hours in bad weather to sign their draft cards, while others carried their own rifles so they would be ready for battle when they joined up. Unwilling to wait for their draft numbers, one-fourth of the Mescalero Apaches in New Mexico enlisted. Nearly all the able-bodied Chippewas at the Grand Portage Reservation enlisted. In a story that has been attributed to many other tribes as well, Blackfeet Indians mocked the need for a conscription bill. "Since when," their members cried, "has it been necessary for Blackfeet to draw lots to fight?"
The annual enlistment for Native Americans jumped from 7,500 in the summer of 1942 to 22,000 at the beginning of 1945. According to the Selective Service in 1942, at least 99 percent of all eligible Indians, healthy males aged 21 to 44, had registered for the draft. War Department of ficials maintained that if the entire population had enlisted in the same proportion as Indians, the response would have rendered Selective Service unnecessary. The overwhelming majority of Indians welcomed the opportunity to serve. On Pearl Harbor Day, there were 5,000 Indians in the military. By the end of the war, 24,521 reservation Indians, exclusive of officers, and another 20,000 off-reservation Indians had served. The combined figure of 44,500 was more than ten percent of the Native American population during the war years. This represented one-third of all able-bodied Indian men from 18 to 50 years of age. In some tribes, the percentage of men in the military reached as high as 70 percent. Also, several hundred Indian women served in the WACS, WAVES, and Army Nurse Corps.
The "Chiefs" Go to War
In spite of years of inefficient and often corrupt bureaucratic management of Indian affairs, Native Americans stood ready to fight the "white man's war." American Indians overcame past disappointment, resentment, and suspicion to respond to their nation's need in World War II. It was a grand show of loyalty on the part of Native Americans and many Indian recruits were affectionately called "chiefs." Native Americans responded to America's call for soldiers because they understood the need to defend one's own land, and they understood fundamental concepts of fighting for life, liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness.
Even the clannish Pueblo tribe, whose members exhibited a historical suspicion of the white world, contributed 213 men, 10 percent of their population of 2,205, to the armed forces. Wisconsin Chippewas at the Lac Oreilles Reservation contributed 100 men from a population of 1,700. Nearly all the able-bodied Chippewas at the Grand Portage Reservation enlisted. Blackfeet Indians enlisted in droves. Navajo Indians responded by sending 3,600 into military service; 300 lost their lives. Many volunteered from the Fort Peck Sioux-Assinibois Reservation in Montana, the descendants of the Indians that defeated Custer. The Iroquois took it as an insult to be called up under compulsion. They passed their own draft act and sent their young braves into National Guard units.
There were many disappointments as well-intentioned Indians were rejected for the draft. Years of poverty, illiteracy, ill- health, and general bureaucratic neglect had taken its toll. A Chippewa Indian was furious when rejected because he had no teeth. "I don't want to bite 'em," he said, "I just want to shoot 'em!" Another Indian, rejected for being too fat to run, said that he had not come to run, but to fight.
The Swastika Shadow Over Native Americans
World War II signalled a major break from the past and offered unparalleled opportunities for Indians to compete in the white man's world. Because the Choctaw language had befuddled German code-breakers in World War I, the Gemman government feared the likelihood of Indian communications specialists as World War II loomed. During the 1930s, Nazi agents posing as anthropologists and writers on reservations tried to subvert some Indian tribes and learn their language. Pan-Nazi agitators from the German-American Bund tried to persuade Indians not to register for the draft. Third Reich Propaganda Minister Josef Goebbels predicted Indians would revolt rather than fight Gemmany because the Swastika was similarto an Indian mystical bird symbol depicting good luck.
Goebbels went so far as to declare the Sioux to be "Aryans," but the Indians knew that as a Mongoloid race, they would be enslaved by the Nazis. Fascist attempts to convert Indians to their cause not only met with failure, but it may have encouraged Indians to register for the draft in the large numbers they did. About 20 percent of the Indian population, 80,000 men and women, marched off to fight in the armed forces and at the home front against Adolph Hitler, a man they called, "he who smells his moustache." Benito Mussolini fared little better, as the Indians called him "Gourd Chin."
Indians saw the Axis Powers as a threat to their liberty, and the Indian tribes responded patriotically. The Chippewa and Sioux joined the Iroquois in declaring war on the Axis. Indians took extreme measures to get into the war. Illiterate Papago Indians memorized a few English phrases and learned to write their names when called to the induction centers. The Navajo, also rejected in large numbers for not speaking English, were extremely determined to serve. They organized remedial English training on their reservations to qualify for service in the armed forces.
The draft created a structure within which Indians and whites had to operate together for the defense of their country. The draft set Indians on a new course where they would be integrated into military life with their white counterparts . Their lives and their land-based society would never be the same. The Indians' success in weakening racial barriers in the armed forces during World war II presaged the rise of the Civil Rights movement later.
The Home Front
Well-known American humorist Will Rogers, a Cherokee from Oklahoma, said, "The United States never broke a treaty with a foreign government and never kept one with the Indians." Nevertheless, the government of the United States found no more loyal citizens than their own "first Americans." When President Roosevelt mobilized the country and declared war on the Axis Powers, it seemed as if he spoke to each citizen individually. Therefore, according to the Indians' way of perceiving, all must be allowed to participate. About 40,000 Indian men and women, aged 18 to 50, left reservations for the first time to find jobs in defense industries. This migration led to new vocational skills and increased cultural sophistication and awareness in dealings with non-Indians.
The purchase of Treasury Stamps and Bonds by Indian tribes and individuals was considerable. By 1944, war bond sales to Indians had reached $50 million. Indians also made generous donations to the Red Cross and other organizations, giving what they had. All of this from a minority group at the bottom rung of the economic ladder.
Some 2,500 Navajos helped construct the Fort Wingate Ordnance Depot in New Mexico, and Pueblo Indians helped build the Naval Supply Depot in Utah. Because of their hunting, survival, and navigational skills in the harsh regions of the north, Alaskan Indians were involved in territorial defense. The entire football team at the Santa Fe Indian School volunteered for the armed forces after the 1942 homecoming game.
Women took over traditional men' s duties on the reservation, manning fire lookout stations, and becoming mechanics, lumberjacks, farmers, and delivery personnel. Indian women, although reluctant to leave the reservation, worked as welders in aircraft plants. Many Indian women gave their time as volunteers for American Womens' Volunteer Service, Red Cross, and Civil Defense. They also tended livestock, grew victory gardens, canned food, and sewed uniforms. A wealthy Kiowa woman in Oklahoma sent a $1,000 check to the Navy Relief signed with her thumbprint. Alaskan women trapped animals to earn war bond money. By 1943, the YWCA (Young Women's Christian Association) estimated that 12,000 young Indian women had left the reservation to work in defense industries. By 1945, an estimated 150,000 Native Americans had directly participated in industrial, agricultural, and military aspects of the American war effort.
The Indian Service sent 1,119 of its 7,000 employees into military service. Of these, 22 died, while 7 won Silver or Bronze Stars. In 1942, the Japanese captured 45 Aleuts on Attu. Only 24 returned from captivity in Japan, where they had worked in clay pits.
The federal government designated some Indian lands and even tribes themselves as essential natural resources, appropriating tribal minerals, lumber, and lands for the war effort. After the war, Native Americans discovered thattheirservice forthe warefforthad depleted their resources without reward. Indian lands provided essential war materials such as oil, gas, lead, zinc, copper, vanadium, asbestos, gypsum, and coal. The Manhattan Project used Navajo helium in New Mexico to make the atomic bomb. The war effort depleted the Blackfeet's tribal resources of oil.
Tell it to the Marines
German soldiers during World War I had been befuddled by Indians who transmitted messages over field phones in the Choctaw language. The 32d Infantry Division, Third Ammy, used Indians from Michigan and Wisconsin to work with microphones and to transmit messages in the Louisiana Maneuvers of 1940. During World War II, the U.S. Marine Corps recruited Navajo Indians for the same purpose. Navajo marines used their language as a battlefield code that the Japanese never broke. The Navajo Code Talkers became the most celebrated and publicized of the radio units.
Marines were "elite" fighters and welcomed Indians because of their warrior reputation. The Navajo marines ended their ceremonial chants by singing the Marine Corps Hymn in Navajo. Their eloquence came naturally to Indians because theirs is an oral culture. Navajos formed special all-Navajo Marine Corps signal units that encoded messages in their native tongue. Taking advantage of the flexibility and range of the Navajo language, they worked out translations of military and naval terms so that orders and instructions could be transmitted by voice over the radio in a code the Japanese were never able to break. They were used first in late 1942 on Guadalcanal. Special Code Talker units were eventually assigned to each of the Marine Corps' six Pacific divisions. By war's end, over 400 Navajo had served as Code Talkers. Untold numbers of Marines owe their lives to the Navajo Code Talkers.
Indians also excelled at basic training. Maj. Lee Gilstrop of Oklahoma, who trained 2 ,000 Native Americans at his post, said, "The Indian is the best damn soldier in the Army." Their talents included bayonet fighting, marksmanship, scouting, and patrolling. Native Americans took to commando training; after all, their ancestors invented it. One Sioux soldier, Kenneth Scisson of South Dakota, became an American commando unit's leading Gemman-killer. On a single patrol, Scisson added ten notches to his Garand rifle. Native Americans endured thirst and lack of food better than the average soldier. They had an acute sense of perception and excellent endurance, along with superior physical coordination.
Indians first saw action in the Pacific theater. Over 300 Indians, including a descendant of the famed Apache chief Geronimo, took part in the defense of Bataan and Corregidor. Over 2,000 Indian farmers, workers, and businessmen in Oklahoma and New Mexico trained and fought as part of the 45th Infantry Division for 511 days of combat in Italy and Central Europe. The "Thunderbirds" had the highest propor tion of Indian soldiers of any division, but Indians served conspicuously in the 4th and 88th Divisions, the l9thand 180thInfantryRegiments, and the 147thField Artillery Regiment, and in sundry Oklahoma National Guard units.
For Native Americans, World War II signalled a majorbreak from the past. Many Indians inthe military made a decent living for the first time in their lives. By 1944, the average Indian's annual income was $2,500, up two and one-half times since 1940. Military life provided a steady job, money, status, and a taste of the white man's world. Indians leamed assertiveness they could use in their fight for equal rights after the war.
The Warriors and War Workers Return
The war, therefore, provided new opportunities for American Indians, and these opportunities disrupted old patterns. The wartime economy and military service took thousands of Indians away from the reservations. Many of these Indians settled into the mainstream, adapting pemmanently to the cities and to a non-Indian way of life. Moreover, thousands retumed to the reservation even after they had proved themselves capable of making the adjustment to white America. Those who left traditional cultures did not necessarily reject their heritage. Instead, they forged a new Pan-Indian identity to cope with the differences they perceived between themselves and whites.
World War II became a turning point for both Indians and Caucasians because its impact on each was so great and different. Whites believed that World War II had completed the process of Indian integration into mainstream American society. Large numbers of Indians, on the other hand, saw for the first time the non-Indian world at close range. It both attracted and repelled them. The positive aspects included a higher standard of living, with education, health care, and job opportunities. The negatives were the lessening of tribal influence and the threat of forfeiting the security of the reservation. Indians did not want equality with whites at the price of losing group identification. In sum, the war caused the greatest change in Indian life since the beginning of the reservation era and taught Native Americans they could aspire to walk successfully in two worlds.

A good deal of credit must go to the Native Americans for their outstanding part in America's victory in World War II. They sacrificed more than most-both individually and as a group. They left the land they knew to travel to strange places, where people did not always understand their ways. They had to forego the dances and rituals that were an important part of their life. They had to leam to work under non-Indian supervisors in situations that were wholly new to them. It was a tremendously difficult adjustment; more than for white America, which had known modem war and mobilization before. But in the process, Native Americans became Indian-Americans, not just American Indians.
Lt. Col. Thomas D. Morgan, USA (Ret.), is a military operations analyst atFortLeavenworth, Kansas, with a leading defense contractor. A graduate of the U.S. Military Academy, he was commissioned in the Field Artillery, and served on active duty at various assignments in the United States, Germany, Vietnarn, Panama, and Belgium. He holds an M.P A. degree from the University of Missouri and an M A. degree in History from Pacific Lutheran University.


Chronology

• 1918 - Iroquois Indians declare waron Germany. Since they were not included in the 1919 Peace Treaty, they simply renewed their Declaration of War in 1941 and included Italy and Japan.
• 1919 - Indian soldiers and sailors receive citizenship.
• 1924 -The Snyder Act grants full citizenship to all American Indians.
• 1938 -Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) estimates number of potential registrants for a draft in case of war.
• 1939 - BIA updates male Indian age groups.
• Jun 1940-The Navajo tribe announces that any un-American activity among its people will be dealt with severely.
• Aug 1940- BIA Commissioner John Collier meets with Selective Service representatives to determine how to register Indians.
• Sep 1940- Congress passes Selective Service Act.
• Oct 1940 - Congress passes Nationalities Act granting citizenship to all Native Americans without impairing tribal authority.
  • - For the first time, American Indians register for the draft.
• Jan 1941- The Fourth Signal Company recruits thirty Oklahoma Comanche Indians to be part of a special Signal Corps Detachment.
• Oct 1940- The armed forces have inducted 1,785 Native Americans.
• Dec 1941- There are 5,000 Native Americans in the armed forces when Japanese forces attack Pearl Harbor.
• Jan 1942 - Accordingto Selective Service of ficials, 99 percent of all eligible Native Americans had registered for the draft. This ration set the national standard for the nation.
• Jan 1942 - The Navajo Tribal Council calls a special convention to dramatize their support for the war effort; 50,000 attend.
• Jul 1 942 - The Six Nations (Mohawks, Oneida, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, 1942 and Iroquois) declare waron the Axis Powers.
• 1942-1943- The Ammy Air Corps runs a literacy program in Atlantic City, N.J., for native Americans who could not meet military literacy standards.
• Apr 1943- Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes announces that Indians have bought $12.6 million in war bonds.
• 1944 - Over 46,000 Indian men and women have left their reservations for defense-related jobs.
• Nov 1944- Fifty tribes establish the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) in Denver, Colorado.
• Jan 1945- John Collier resigns as Indian Commissioner after years of political controversy.
• 1946- TheTrumanCommissiononCivilRightsurges more humanitarian consideration for Native Amencans.
  • -Indian Claims Commission Act created by Congress to adjudicate Indian land claims in the aftermath of WWII.
• 1947 - Army Indian Scouts discontinued as a separate element of the U.S. armed forces.
  • They had last been used on border patrol duties.
• 1957 - Utah becomes the last state to permit Indians to vote.

Native Americans in World War II

 

Jan 1942 - According to Selective Service officials, 99 percent of all eligible Native Americans had registered for the draft. This ration set the national standard for the nation.
Jul 1942 - The Six Nations (Mohawks, Oneida, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, 1942 and Iroquois) declare war on the Axis Powers.

I found this very interesting .

 

Also see, Native Soldiers - Foreign Battlefieds at Veterans Affairs Canada Native Soldiers - Veterans Affairs Canada

 

Great reading, thank you both!

 

My uncle (through marragie) is Cherokee and was with the Marines in the Pacific on a few island hops. One thing in their favor, especially at night they looked very similar to Japs and that saved my uncle on at least one occassion. Hehehe!

 

Great stuff J.C!

During WWII my Grandfather-who was Norwegian, was the Captain of the SS Fort Lee. About 33% or so, were Apache Indians. I've got I think two photo's that show him with some of "his" Apaches.

BTW, my Dads side of the family is Cherokee. I'm a 1/4th "Injun." :-D

 

"The only good 1/4th Injun is a dead 1/4th Injun"

 

Good reading. The most famous story I remember is the use of Navajos to encrypt messages. It was impossible for the Japanese to decypher their language used as a code.

 

:lol: :lol:

You sure know how to declare war don't ya? ;-D

 

Hi Jeff, yep. My Dad's Father (that's Grandfather to those of you who live in Rio Linda) was full-blooded Injun. My Dad and Uncle had the "red skin" and my Aunt looked more White. My Uncles Son, has the red skin and my Uncles Daughter has white skin. Go figure? ;-D

I take after my Granddad from my Moms side and I look more Norwegian than anything else. Also, the older I get, the more and more I start looking exactly like my Grandfather. Someday i'll find someone to post (currently unmade copies) of pics of my Grandfather as Captain of the SS Fort Lee during WWII. Somewhere between several and about 33% of his crew, were full-blooded Apache indians.

 

Carl, It would be interesting to see the photos. Do you have any stories about your Grandfather or any of his experiences?

 

Hey!!!!! My grandfather was Choctaw! LOL

 

Yes and not just Navajo Indian or just in the Pacific too .

 

Yaicks! Time to sound retreat, this forum is crawling with Hostiles or fractions thereof

 

Hi Michelle, it might be a lengthy amount of time before I can get copies made of the pics I have of him. I'll try next week if possible? Then i'll have to mail these off ot one of my trusted Elves (i.e.) Jeff, Erich or any volunteer) to post them for me. I'm not sure what years these pics might have been taken in but, I think I have one when my Grandfather had just arrived from Norway-before WWI, and maybe 1-2 wartime photos.

Anyway, i'll try to make time to get copies made.

Also, on any stories. I only met my Grandfather once which was when I was 2 yrs old & shortly before he passed away-so I don't have any personal memories of him. However, I do remember some things my Mother told me through the years.

One thing I was told by my Mother was that his ship (the SS Fort Lee) had been torpedoed by a German U-boat-which I later found out thanks to my friend Susanne, that the Uboat was U 181 (formerly commanded by none other than Wolfgang Luth) and commanded by Kapitan zur See Kurt Freiwald. The SS FOrt Lee was torpedoed in stormy November (1944) weather and at night.

I was told that my Grandfather was the only survivor and that his Lifeboat had been the only one found and that my Grandfather was close to death from lack of water, food and exposure. I was told he and his First Mate, had been in this lifeboat for around two weeks.

However, fast forward many years, and thanks to Susanne, Dieter Hille and the North Atlantic Chapter of the Merchant Marine, I was able to get factual information. Apparently many more than just my grandfather survived. I forget how many men made up his crew but, I know that there were sme 27 men (U.S>Navy Crew) who made up the armed crew.

OK, the first torpedo hit I think amid-ship and knocked out the engines and electrical power. I was told by Dieter Hille and Karl Kaiser, that it was about 20 minutes before they saw any activity. I was told that the Germans had thought that the ship had blackout and that it was not because of the torpedo (info from the Merchant Marines said different.

Anyway, the Germans manovered the Uboat to the other side of the ship and because of the stormy weather, they could not tell that two lifeboats were being lowered. They fired that 2nd torpedo, and saw the explosion. Where the explosion was, was the two lifeboats full of men. I do not remember how many men were killed in that explosion--possibly 25 or more?

The uboat moved in and they were supposedly under orders to try to find the ships Captain (namely my Grandfather) but the Germans were tricked as they said the Captain was (and by that time) went down with the ship. In reality, my Grandfather had borrowed another officers spare Jacket and put it on.

There were alot of truths and half-truths to the stories I heard when I was younger. Many were verified or torn apart-when we all discussed that nights events when at the 9th reunion in Bad Camberg. One thing thta had a possbility of happening was that the Germans gave a Luger pistol to my Grandfather-so he could shoot sharks who might want to munch on his men who were still in the water.

I was told by Dieter Hille, that it had to be impossible that they gave a firearm to an enemy officer and that that was against regulations. However, they said it might be true that that "Luger" was actually a Flare Pistol that the Kapitan ordered to be given to the senior officer living (in the lifeboats) and I do know that the Germans did give blankets, food, water etc, to the men in the lifeboats.

Had the Germans known that my Gradfather was Norwegian, they were supposedly under orders to nab the ships Captain, and if he was from an occupied country, that they were supposed to execute him. I do not know if this order was ever followed out or not? Perhaps Ivan, if he sees this, maybe he will be able to answer that question much better. ;-))

Anyway, as far as the Germans were concerned-and all of these years until I gave them documented proof, that as far as they were concerned, they thought everybody on the SS FOrt Lee; had survived. However, when I presented them the official info I got from the M/M, I saw that they were truely saddened, because men had died that night.

The Vets wanted to apologise to me for trying to kill my Grandfather. I told them that I did not hold them in a bad way, because they were doing their jobs. I also told them that I did not hold it against them for firing those torpedoes into my grandfathers ship.

Do you realize what those men did after that was said? These Gents, and I clasped hands and said a prayer for those men who were killed on the SS Fort Lee. Dieter Hille said the prayer in both German and in English. I disliked having shown the papers telling of who died and such because, for a time, they went from all beinig happy, to being sad at hearing of the loss of these seamen.

I might add a bit more to this when I have more time. ;-))

Before I forget, you can Google the SS Fort Lee, and or the Reunion in Bad Camberg, Germany. I think the info has been placed in "storage" for lack of better words-since this happened over 7 & 1/2 years ago.

 

Thank you, so much for sharing the story, Carl.

Michelle

 

Hello Michelle, your quite welcome ;-))

 

I found a little more about the 4th Signal Co. of the 4th Infantry Division


Wednesday, July 5, 2000
WWII Comanche code helped foil enemy
By Edward Levenson
Philly Burbs Staff Writer

A Doylestown Township retired Army officer worked with Indian servicemen to translated military terms to unique words. The secret vocabulary came in handy after D-Day

DOYLESTOWN TWP. —On the eve of World War II, 2nd Lt. Hugh F. Foster Jr. faced a challenge he never imagined during his four years at the U.S. Military Academy.

The new West Point graduate had to find a way to translate modern military terms such as tank and bomber into the language spoken by the Comanche Indians of Oklahoma.

Foster, an officer in the 4th Signal Co. of the 4th Infantry Division, worked in the fall of 1941 with a group of 17 Comanche Indians who were members of the company. Foster compiled a list of 250 key military terms and explained them to the Comanches, who came up with translations in their unique language. Training sessions were held three days a week for several months.

Thus, tank became "Wah-kah-ray" (turtle in Comanche) and hospital became "Nat-su Kah-nee" (sick house), according to a glossary kept by Foster, now an 82-year-old retired Army major general who lives in Doylestown Township.

The Comanches had a native word for airplane, but could not distinguish among fighters, bombers and other types. The tribe members huddled and decided upon "Who-chew-no-ah Vuk-kuta" (pregnant airplane) for bomber.

The secret vocabulary proved useful after D-Day in June 1944, when 14 of the Comanches were among the Allied troops who landed in Normandy. They laid telephone lines and performed other communications duties.

Known as "code talkers," the Indians used their language to relay verbal messages over field telephones between the battlefield and divisional headquarters. Even if they intercepted the calls, the Germans could not figure out what was said.

"It was sort of like a communications first-aid kit," said Foster, who left the Comanche soldiers after the initial training and served as a Signal Corps officer in North Africa in 1943 and in Italy in 1944 and 1945.

He noted that encoding machines were used to send written messages between headquarters and field commanders, but the code talkers were invaluable for quick verbal communication on the battlefield.

"They were a resource that was available. When things got tough and we needed to transmit a message in a hurry, you could be sure the Germans would not interpret" a message in Comanche.

While the Comanches provided this service in the European theater, a much larger of contingent of approximately 450 Navajo soldiers did the same thing for the Marine Corps in the Pacific theater.

Foster, a native of Brooklyn, N.Y., said he knew nothing about Comanches when his commanding officer assigned him in September 1941 to train the Indians as code talkers at Fort Benning, Ga. The Signal Corps' primary duty was setting up and maintaining Army communications, including telephone, radio and even carrier pigeons.

Because there is no written Comanche language, Foster would write down a phonetic version of each Comanche term in a pocket notebook he carried with him. The Indians memorized the vocabulary, which could not be understood by other Comanches.

If Comanches needed to give a place name, they would spell it out by using a Comanche word for each letter. Any word would do as long as the English translation began with the corresponding letter. For example, for "T", the code talkers might use the word for "tomato."

Foster had no contact with the code talkers after he transferred out of the 4th Signal Co. in February 1942.

After World War II, he had a varied Army career that included teaching electrical engineering at West Point and the U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis, overseeing electronics research, developing a data processing system and commanding the 1st Signal Brigade for a year in Vietnam. Promoted to major general, he retired as commander of Fort Monmouth, N.J., in 1975.

In 1989, Foster was invited by one of the surviving code talkers, Forrest Kassanavoid, to attend a Comanche Indian war dance ceremony in Oklahoma.

"I was really floored they remembered me," Foster said. He and his wife, Mary Jane, a former Army nurse he married in 1946, were treated as honored guests.

Kassanavoid "adopted" Foster as a member of the tribe and gave him the name "Poo-ee-whee-tay kwop Eksah-bah-nah," which translates as "Telephone Red Sash." This refers to Foster's service in the Signal Corps and to the red sashes worn by U.S. Army officers stationed in the West during the late 1800s.

Foster has returned a half-dozen times to the Comanche nation. The Indians have given him special mementos, including a handmade arrow, a war-dance fan and custom moccasins.When the National Cryptologic Museum at Fort George G. Meade, Md., set up an exhibit in the 1990s honoring all Indian code talkers, Foster provided information and re-created his phonetic notebook, the original of which had been discarded after the war.

The last surviving Comanche code talker, Charles Chibitty, 78, was honored at a Pentagon ceremony last fall with the Army's Knowlton Award, recognizing his contributions to military intelligence

Foster said it is ironic the Comanches served their country as code talkers. He noted the Indians had been forbidden to speak their language as students at Haskell Indian School in Kansas and were punished if they did.

The Comanches used their imagination to come up with vividly descriptive terms.

They even referred to Adolf Hitler as "Po-sah-tie-vaw." That means "crazy white man."

http://www.wwiilectureinstitute.com/stories/foster.htm