Was Fascist Italy Really Totalitarian?

so here's that long awaited (although, I think, crappy) essay. It was written not necessarily to prove one way or another whether Italy was totalitarian...but rather to raise some questions and just get you thinking about it one way or a nother. Also, keep in mind that there was a specific word limit that we had to adhere to, so things aren't as in much detail as I would have liked them to be. It'll be in a few posts, as I can't seem to get an actual website up and running. Sorry for the inconvinience.

In order to determine if Fascist Italy was really a totalitarian state, one must first have some knowledge on the nature of totalitarianism and the differences between totalitarian and authoritarian governments. The term "totalitarian" was first used by democratic critics in Italy during the early 1920s to describe the new Fascist government, and was eventually used to refer to Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in the 1930s. Historians, such as Bruce F. Pauley, have come to a general definition of totalitarianism, although they still cannot agree as to whether or no the definitions fit entirely with any of the so-called repressive states. They emphasize the following:
(1) The great power of the leader
(2) The significance of an exclusive ideology
(3) The existence of a sole mass party,
(4) The use of terror to eliminate all opposition, usually carried out by a secret police,
(5) Censorship over the media as well as the educational systems, and
(6) A desire to change the basic social, artistic, and literary values of the country.


As with almost all of the dictatorships, a serious event or series of events took place in order to set the stage for an eventual seizure of power. The fall of the Weimar Republic was a critical step towards the ris of Hitler in Germany during the early 1930s, and the October Revolution of 1917, and the resulting Civil War, playes a role in the rise of Bolshevism, consequently leading to Stalin in the USSR. In Italy, it was a number of events that helped Mussolini rise to power. The failures of Liberal Italy, combined with the dissatisfaction of the public over the Treaty of Versailles, were some of the more important factors that lead to the downfall of the former government of the country. The public fear of a revolution, such as the one that had taken place in Russia, as well as the desire for national glory were manipulated to give an advantage to the newest political group, the Fascists. Mussolini had founded the Fasci di Combattimento (literally "Groups for Combat") on March 23, 1919, which, in 1921, became the Partito Nazionale Fascista, the National Fascist Party, after a congress in Rome. On October 27, 1922, Mussolini's Fascists marched on Rome; while Mussolini conviently stayed near the Swiss border, ready to flee if the situation called. On October 29, however, King Victor Emanuel III officially recognized the Fascists as a government party and, at the age of thirty-nine, Mussolini became the youngest Prime Minister in the history of Italy.

Italy now had a fascist Prime Minister, but not a true fascist government. For one, Fascist governments are almost always at war, or are trying ot begin one. During the rise of Mussolini, however, the First World War had just ended. Nevertheless, the Fascists used it as a means of propaganda. Within two days of being declared Prime Minister, Mussolini discarded all pretense of a democratic government. New Ministers within the Cabinet were selected from a list of high-ranking Fascists and replaced those who had originally been elected to government before Mussolini had gained control. He was at the center of the party and was the focal poin of the Party institutions as well as the Cabinet, Parliament, the Corporations and the Grand Councel of Fascism. During the first two years of his leadership of an approved government, Mussolini had presided over a combination of political parties and excluded only the socialists. Herman FIner, and expert on Fascist Italy, states similarities between Mussolni's roles as the head of state to that of a British Pirme Minister in that they often shared the same responsibilities. The main difference, however, was that a British Prime Minister was subject to constant criticism, whereas the Fascist system was exactly the opposite. Under no cirucmstances was the Head of State subject to such disapproval, as anyone who dared voice such an opinion was arrested and sent to prison.

Mussolini became consumed in his quest for power. During a meeting of the parliament, Mussolini asked the Senate, "Who could have stopped me from making myself a dictator? Who could have resisted a movement that represented not just 300,000 party ticket holders but 300,000 rifles?" This was an obvious example of Mussolin's willingness to use force if necessary. Mussoin pictured himself as the "saviour of the people"; he believed that it was because of his leadership and his actions that the Fascist government came to power. This view of himself eventually corrupted him, and caused him to become secluded and sheltered in everything he did, which subsequently led to his downfall.

During 1925-26 the total power granted bt the December Laws of 1925 was toughened by a series of repressive measure. All opposition - political or otherwise - was banned; cnesorship was introduced; appointed officials replaced elected governments; and the basics of a police state were created. These measures increased the power not of the Party, but instead they increased the power of the DUCE. The law passed on January 31, 1926 conceded to the executive power the ability to establish legal standards without any parliamentary control.

In 1934, Italo Balbo, arguably the best pilot in the Italian Air Force and one of Mussolini's closest aquaintances, was quoted as saying "Mussolini thinks he is God now. he has lost all contact with the country and no one can make him listen to reason any more." He was now the Capo di Stato, the Head of State and was no longer responsible to anyone except the Crown. Mussolini was the ultimate organ of the executive power and chose his ministers, who were accountable to him as well as the King. Without his authorization, the Chamber could not discuss any matter. He had the authority to request that a proposed law that had been rejected by one of the two Chambers be put to another vote after three months. This authority proved vital to Mussolini in that when one of his planned reforms for the country were initially rejected, he was able to bring up the issue again and, usually, win the decision.

In the Encylopedia Italiana printed in 1932, Mussolini wrote, "Before everything, Fascism believes neither in the possibility nor the utility of perpetual peace...only war brings all human energies to a maximum tension and imprints the mark of nobility upon the peoples who have the virtue to face it" Mussolini created the doctine for the sole purpose that he thought Fascists needed something to refer to if and when they were questioned. The Italian population had already accepted Fascism as a way of life, and the doctrine was fashoined exclusively for the sake of having one. The ideology was one that changed as often as the party did; it was never really a set idea, rather, it changed whenever it needed to, in order to keep the public satisfied. Facism did indeed have a doctine, as with every ideology, but the facto that sets it apart from others is that Fascism, as a movement existed well before the docrine was ever produced. Mussolini wrote the doctrine, titled Fundamental Ideals, in order to make the Fascist ideology official to the rest of the world. The main idea of the policy was that the nation should be bound together by the individuals of the country, who werew to be bound together by a 'decent' and 'honorable' law. It was extremely anti-utopian in that it described Fascism as a realist ideology, which knew that life was hard. It preached that man should know this and in turn do one's part for the State, regardless of difficulty. The doctrine was also anti-liberal, stating that "the State is all embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value". Because Mussolini himself wrote the doctrine, it was also very anti-socialist, suggesting that Fascism was superior over the class system and that everyone should work together in order to help the State.

In general, the doctrine was one of action. Fascists were told to believe that inactivity of any sort was death, and a man must be ready to act in order to prove and defend his rights as a Fascist and as an Italian. Finally, the doctrine was one that focused on activism, futurism, and nationalism. Mussoini tried to bring out the pride in Italians, and blamed Liberal Italy for the failures and the disgrace brought to them during the First World War. In it, Mussolini argued that Liberalism was crueler than any religious war through the carnage it had brought about prior to and during World War One.

Mussolini had always had his 'ways' of removing rival politicans, but the legal process of removing the opposition began with the passing of the Election Law in 1923. Mussolini banned organized political opposition and abolished the local governments. Each was replaced by an appointee, known as the podesta. They werew responsible to the Prefect in the area, and therefore were responsible to the central government as well.

The existence of the independent Church presented an extraordinary obstacle for Mussolini. He understood the importance of the Church to the Italian life and soon realized that he could not expect complete political support until an agreement was made with the Vatican, which at the time did not formally recognize the legality of the State.The Lateran Pact of 1929 allowed the Church to be the only authorized non-fascist organization in Italy. This contract reached between the Church and the State marked the peak of Mussolini's leadership.

Although Fascist Italy was a single party state, it was not a "party-state" such as Nazi germant or Soviet Russia. While the National Fascist Party was responsible for the "education" of Italy's youth and the promotion of the party and its ideals, true power rested elsewhere, primarily in the established scheme of the state. The party's funcitons inside the state werew reduced to a minimum. Its chief purpose was as an extension of the police and militia wiht a general administrative role over its members. From 1932 to 1939, the National Fascist Party performed a decorative role, and - it could be argued - was chiefly a means of propaganda for Mussolini and Fascist Italy.

[ 17. April 2004, 03:28 PM: Message edited by: DUCE ]

 

While it was first starting out, Fascism's 'secret police' were not that secret at all. The Black-shirts, usually ex-soldiers, considered it their job to punish anyone who opposed Mussolini or the idea of Fascism. It is believed that it was the Black-shirts who murdered the socialist Matteotti, who was an outspoken critic of Mussolini. Though they were less feared than Hitler's SS, the Black-shirts enforced an iron rule in Italy, habitually turning to torture as a means of enforcement. The most common way of making people conform was to tie a 'trouble maker' to a tree, force them to drink a pint or two of castor oil, and then make them eat a live toad. This punishment was enough to ensure that people kept their thoughts to themselves.

Mussolini developed the notion that there was a need for a third party, between the army and the regular police. The result was the formation of the Volunteer Organization for the Repression of Anti-Fascism, the ORVA in 1927, lead by Arturo Bocchini. Although there is little evidence, it is rumored that Mussolini had links to the Italian Mafia and that many members of the ORVA were actually members of the Mafia. Like the SS, members of the ORVA were not required to justify the arrests that they made; they simply had to state that it was for the 'protection of Fascism"

Compared to the vicios terror campaigns of the Gestapo in Nazi Germany or even the Stalinist secret police of the Soviet Union, the tyranny of the Fascist police stat was mild. Concentration camps or mass liquidations of political opponents were unheard of in Fascist Italy up until the early 1940s when, under enormous pressure from Hitler, Mussolini started to persecute Jews in Italy. Even then, the so-called 'concentration camps' were nowhere near the size or the wickedness of those created under Hitler. Actual executions were limited in Italy, and were reserved for terrorists who fought against Italianization of the Croats in the northeastern provinces. Imprisonment or forced exile was the usual punishment for anti-Fascists. Opponents were sent to internment camps set up on the Southern islands of Ustica and Lipari, where they werw given ten LIra a day and forced to pay for rent and basic living. Carlo Rosselli, one of the earlier prisoners sent to such a camp (also on e of the founders of the Giustizia e Liberta, a popular anti Fascist pro-Liberal magazine), was quoted as saying, "The confino (confinment) is a large cell without walls, a cell composed entirely of sky and sea. The Militia sentries are it's walls; walls of flesh and blood rather than of lime and stone..."

It could be argued that it was this lack of extreme violence that truly set Fascist Italy apart from the other authoritarian regimes in Europe at the time. While Hitler was, and still is, the most well known tyrant of Europe at the time, Stalin was by far the most vicious of the leaders, killing well over 20 million Russians during his control. Such numbers and atrocities werew never seen in Italy under Mussolini's rule. Even in the early 1940s after Mussolini started persecuting Jews and homosexuals, it was never to the extent seen in Nazi Germany.

The Decree Law of July 15, 1924, in addition to the Laws of December 31, 1925 and the regulations of March 4, 1925, had built upon the second part of the constitutional agreement contained in Article 28 of the Charter, which stated, "the Press is free, but a law represses the abuse theref". THis resulted in strict censorship over the press, as well as the creation of new laws all together. No printing establishment was to be opened without permission of the police authorities, and if such a company was found, they werew to be fined up to 5,000 Lira, or face six months in prison. No newspaper or magazine was to be founded without a detailed declaration to the Minister of the Interior. Even after which it was never guaranteed that the company would recieve approval. Prefects, who werew the watchdogs of the regime in their provinces, had authority to seize a paper if they saw fit.

Mussolini, being a former newspaper editor, was well educated in the effects of propaganda. he often demonstarted strict control over what was printed in the papers as well as how the public viewed him. using this knowledge, he was able to manipulate current events so that they would seem beneficial to the Italian community. Often times Mussolini would compare Fascism to Bolshevism, contrasting the hardships brought about by Bolshevism to the "luxuries" he associated with Fascism, such as exceptional wheat harvests and an "above average army", although the latter was a complete falsification.

Mussolini's ultimate goal was to re-create a Roman Empire through Fascism. Mario Carli, one of the editors of the popular Fascist Magazine, L'Impero, summarized the view of the new 'empire' when he wrote, "We are moving in a different historic clime, no longer dominated by fear and doubt, no longer contaminated by baseness, fraud and compromise...we are people of stong and consious men, a people burning and active, molding its own future..."

From the begining Fascism was imperialist. In order to re-create the Empire, Mussolini wanted control over the Adriatic and its Balkan coast, as well as East Africa and Eastern Europe. His first foreign policy coup in government was his aggressive escalation of a dispute with Greece over the Greek-Albanian border. This eventually led to the occupation of Corfu in the summer of 1923. The island was later evacuated after the threat of British naval action in the Mediterranean.

The most notable reforms in the early years of Fascism were the ones made to education. Public education was mandatory for all Italians, the extent varying with the local circumstances. Emphasis was placed on history, art, religion and other elements of natural culture. The school was to be formative rather than informative. University teachers who refused to take the oath of allegiance to the regime, lost their chairs and were often forced to flee Italy because of their 'anti-fascist' activities.

Shortly after the invasion of Sicily on July 16, 1943, Mussolini called for the first meeting of the Fascist Grand Council since 1939. When they finally met on the 25th, they attacked Mussolini from both sides. The 'moderates' wished to break with Germany and realized that, in order to do this, Mussolini had to be removed from power. The pro-Germans wished to reinforce the German alliance and accompany this with a 'nazified' party in Italy. The moderates had an overwhelming majority and after a lengthy debate carried a motion which called for the King to resume his command of the armed forces. Mussolini believed that this 'counseling' body could not harm him, however, later on in an interview ont he 25th, the King informed Mussolini that he had been dismissed. As soon as he left the King, Mussolini was placed under "protective custody".

When General Badoglio assumed Premiership after Mussolin's dismissal, preparations were made for Italy's surrender, which was made offical on September 8, 1943, followed by Italy's declaration of war on Germany in October. The allies invaded the southern mainland and, at the same time, Germany formally occupied northern and central Italy. For the next 18 months, Italians found themselves in the middle of two wars; the one between the advancing allies and the Germans, and the civil war between the remaining Fascists and the growing Resistance.

By August 1944 the allies were as far north as Florence, and by early 1945 they had recaptured northern Italy. Mussolini fled northwards under German protection but was arrested by members of the Resistance at the border. On April 28, 1945, Mussolin along with his mistress and thos who were caught trying to escape, was shot and then paraded through the streets of Milan. This brought an official end to the reign of Fascism in Italy.

The fact that the Grand Council overthrew Mussolini is a deciding factor in determining whether or not Fascist Italy was totalitarian. His execution was just a way of finalizing the fall of Fascism. While it tood the deaths of the other major European dictators - Hitler in 1945 and Stalin in 1953 - to signify the end of their reign, Fascism was declared a failure almost two years before the death of it's former leader.

Various historians categorize Italian Fascism as totalitarian, concentration entirely on its intentions and actions. However, Fascist Italy was merely a developing dictatorship that was animated by totalitarian objectives. One could even go as far as saying that although Fascsim may have been an authoritarian regime, it was never a totalitarian form of government. Mussolini never held complete control over every aspect of the country at any one time. Although it did share some similarities to the other major dictatorships in Europe of the time period, it relied heavily on thos dictatorships to thrive. The differences between them, however few there may be, are enough to prived evidence that Fascist Italy was not completely totalitarian.

The most important difference between the dictatorships in Europe was the amount of violence used by the leaders. While Mussolini did use violence and terror to aid his rise to power, once he gained control, mass displays of brutality were limited to extreme circumstances. Consequently, a genuine dictatorship was never firmly established. Hitler and Stalin, on the other hand, used force and brutality every day. Unlike Hitler, Mussolini did not believe in racial superiority or, for that matter, go to such a degree of maliciousness in order to purify his country. Hitler's "Final Solution" is the most well known display of terror used by any leader of the twentieth century, while Stalin's "Great Purges" of the 1930s are just now coming into full understanding due to the new evidence being released to the public.

Historians will always argue over whether or not Fascist Italy was genuinely a totalitarian regime. Whereas it is blatantly evident that Nazi Germany awas under the complete rule of Adolf Hiter, just a Soviet Russia was under Stalin, there are too many differences of flaws in the contro of Fascist Italy to consider it entirely totalitarian.

SOURCES:

Blinkhorn, Martin. Mussolin and Fascist Italy 1984. Methuen & Co. New York

Finer, Herman Mussolini's Italy 1935 Archon Books. Hamden Connecticut

Gallo, Max. Mussolini's Italy: Twenty Years fo the Fascist Era 1964. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. New York

Killinger, Charles L. The History of Italy 2002. Greenwood press. London.

Leeds, Christopher. Italy under Mussolini 1988. Wayland Publishers Ltd. Avon, England.

Mack Smith, Denis. Modern Italy: A Political History 1997. University of Michigan Press. Michigan

Morgan, Philip. Italian Fascism 1919-1945 1995. Macmillan Press. London

Palla, Marco. Mussolini and Facism 2000. Interlink Books. New York

Pauley, Bruce F. Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century 1997. Harlan Davidson Inc. Wheeling Illinois.

Pollard, John. The Fascist Experience in Italy 1998. Routledge. London.

Priverta, Joseph F. Italy: An Illustrated History 2000. Hippocrene Books Inc. New York

Schneider, Herbert W. Making the Fascist State 1928. Howarard Fertig. New York

____________ The Fascist Government of Italy 1936. Greenwood Press. Westport, Connecticut.

Rinn S. Shinn. Italy: A Country Study 1987. US Government Printing Office. Washington DC

Wiskemann, Elizabeth. Fascism in Italy: It's Deveopment and Influence Second Edition. 1970. Macmillan Press. London


.....and with that, I am done the essay!

comments?

DUCE

[ 17. April 2004, 04:38 PM: Message edited by: DUCE ]